Observations Plus Recipes It has been said that science is the orderly collection of facts about the natural world. Scientists, however, are wary of using the word 'fact. ' 'Fact' has the feeling of absoluteness and universality, whereas scientific observations are neither ab- lute nor universal. For example, 'children have 20 deciduous [baby] teeth' is an observation about the real world, but scientists would not call it a fact. Some children have fewer deciduous teeth, and some have more. Even those children who have exactly 20 deciduous teeth use the full set during only a part of their childhood. When they are babies and t- dlers, children have less than 20 visible teeth, and as they grow older, children begin to loose their deciduous teeth, which are then replaced by permanent teeth. 'Children have 20 deciduous [baby] teeth' is not even a complete scientific sta- ment. For one thing, the statement 'children have 20 deciduous teeth' does not tell us what we mean by 'teeth. ' When we say "teeth," do we mean only those that can seen be with the unaided eye, or do we also include the hidden, unerupted teeth? An observation such as 'children have 20 deciduous teeth' is not a fact, and, by itself, it is not acceptable as a scientific statement until its terms are explained: scientifically, 'children have 20 deciduous teeth' must be accompanied by definitions and qualifiers.
Acknowledgements. Introduction. Scientific Papers Used as Examples; Part I: Tools and Techniques. 1 The Standards of a Scientific Paper. A- A Stereotyped Format. B- Precise Language. C- A Single, Clear Direction. D- Reviewed and Made Available to Others. 2 Scientific Words, Sentences, and Paragraphs. A-Scientific Text Needs Exactness and Clarity. B- The Paragraph is the Unit of Exposition. 3 Writing Scientific Text. A- Begin to Write While You Experiment. B- Start Broadly, Work on the Details Later. C- A Magnified View of the Writing Process. D- Advice to Speakers of Other Languages. 4 Presenting Numerical Data. A- Tables. B- Statistics. 5 Constructing Scientific Figures. A- Basic Guidelines. B- Figure Legends. C- Numerical Figures. D- Preparation for Submission to a Journal. E- Scientific Patterns should be Reproducible; Part II: Writing a Research Paper. 1 Writing During Research. A. Keep a Computerized Notebook B. Begin a Draft Early Chapter 2 Composing the Sections of a Research Paper; A. Materials and Methods; B. Appendix; C. Results; D. Discussion; E. Conclusion; F. Limitations of this Study; G. Introduction; H. Abstract; I. Key Words and List of Nonstandard Abbreviations; J. Title; K. Footnotes; L. Acknowledgements; M. References; Part III: Preparing a Manuscript for Submission; Chapter 1. Choosing a Journal, A. Make a List of Candidate Journals, B. Style Rules; Chapter 2 A Final Rewrite, A. Get a Friendly Critique , B. Read the Paper Backwards, C. Recheck the Spelling; Chapter 3 Preparing and Submitting the Manuscript, A. Print and Page Format, B. The Manuscript Packet, C. The Introductory Letter; Chapter 4 Responding to Editors and Referees; Appendix A Words That Are Often Misused; Appendix B Simplifying Wordy, Redundant, And Awkward Phrases; Appendix C Standard Scientific Abbreviations, Appendix D Typical Bibliographic Formats, Appendix E Additional Reading, Appendix F Software Suggestions; Index.
