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Contents

List of Symbols xix 1. Introduction 1 Learning Objectives 2 1.1 Historical Perspective 2 1.2 Materials Science and Engineering: Need of Its Study 3 Case Study 1.1-Cargo Ship Failures 6 1.3 Classification of Materials 7 Case Study 1.2-Carbonated Beverage Containers 12 1.4 Advanced Materials 14 1.5 Modern Materials' Needs 17 Summary 18 References 18 Questions and Problems 19 2. Atomic Structure and Interatomic Bonding20 Learning Objectives 21 2.1 Introduction 21 Atomic Structure 21 2.2 Fundamental Concepts 21 2.3 Electrons in Atoms 24 2.4 The Periodic Table 30 Atomic Bonding in Solids 32 2.5 Bonding Forces and Energies 32 2.6 Primary Interatomic Bonds 34 2.7 Secondary Bonding or van der Waals Bonding 41 Materials of Importance 2.1-Water (Its Volume Expansion upon Freezing) 44 2.8 Mixed Bonding 45 2.9 Molecules 46 2.10 Bonding Type-Material Classification Correlations 46 Summary 47 Equation Summary 48 List of Symbols 48 Important Terms and Concepts 49 References 49 Questions and Problems 49 3. Structures of Metals and Ceramics 52 Learning Objectives 53 3.1 Introduction 53 Crystal Structures 54 3.2 Fundamental Concepts 54 3.3 Unit Cells 55 3.4 Metallic Crystal Structures 55 3.5 Density Computations-Metals 61 3.6 Ceramic Crystal Structures 62 3.7 Density Computations-Ceramics 69 3.8 Silicate Ceramics 70 3.9 Carbon 73 3.10 Polymorphism and Allotropy 78 3.11 Crystal Systems 78 Material of Importance 3.1-Tin (Its Allotropic Transformation) 80 Crystallographic Points, Directions, and Planes 81 3.12 Point Coordinates 81 3.13 Crystallographic Directions 83 3.14 Crystallographic Planes 90 3.15 Linear and Planar Densities 96 3.16 Close-Packed Crystal Structures 97 Crystalline and Noncrystalline Materials 100 3.17 Single Crystals 100 3.18 Polycrystalline Materials 101 3.19 Anisotropy 101 3.20 X-Ray Diffraction: Determination of Crystal Structures 103 3.21 Noncrystalline Solids 108 Summary 110 Equation Summary 112 List of Symbols 113 Important Terms and Concepts 114 References 114 Questions and Problems 114 4. Polymer Structures 123 Learning Objectives 124 4.1 Introduction 124 4.2 Hydrocarbon Molecules 124 4.3 Polymer Molecules 127 4.4 The Chemistry of Polymer Molecules 127 4.5 Molecular Weight 131 4.6 Molecular Shape 135 4.7 Molecular Structure 137 4.8 Molecular Configurations 138 4.9 Thermoplastic and Thermosetting Polymers 141 4.10 Copolymers 142 4.11 Polymer Crystallinity 143 4.12 Polymer Crystals 147 Summary 149 Equation Summary 150 List of Symbols 151 Important Terms and Concepts 151 References 151 Questions and Problems 152 5. Composites 155 Learning Objectives 156 5.1 Introduction 156 Particle-Reinforced Composites 158 5.2 Large-Particle Composites 159 5.3 Dispersion-Strengthened Composites 162 Fiber-Reinforced Composites 163 5.4 Influence of Fiber Length 163 5.5 Influence of Fiber Orientation and Concentration 164 5.6 The Fiber Phase 173 5.7 The Matrix Phase 174 5.8 Polymer-Matrix Composites 175 5.9 Metal-Matrix Composites 180 5.10 Ceramic-Matrix Composites 182 5.11 Carbon-Carbon Composites 183 5.12 Hybrid Composites 184 5.13 Processing of Fiber-Reinforced Composites 184 Structural Composites 188 5.14 Laminar Composites 188 5.15 Sandwich Panels 190 Case Study 5.1-Use of Composites in the Boeing 787 Dreamliner 192 5.16 Nanocomposites 193 Summary 195 Equation Summary 198 List of Symbols 199 Important Terms and Concepts 199 References 199 Questions and Problems 200 6. Imperfections in Solids 204 Learning Objectives 205 6.1 Introduction 205 Point Defects 206 6.2 Point Defects in Metals 206 6.3 Point Defects in Ceramics 207 6.4 Impurities in Solids 210 6.5 Point Defects in Polymers 215 6.6 Specification of Composition 215 Miscellaneous Imperfections 219 6.7 Dislocations-Linear Defects 219 6.8 Interfacial Defects 222 Materials of Importance 6.1-Catalysts (and Surface Defects) 225 6.9 Bulk or Volume Defects 226 6.10 Atomic Vibrations 226 Microscopic Examination 227 6.11 Basic Concepts of Microscopy 227 6.12 Microscopic Techniques 228 6.13 Grain-Size Determination 232 Summary 235 Equation Summary 237 List of Symbols 237 Important Terms and Concepts 238 References 238 Questions and Problems 238 7. Diffusion 243 Learning Objectives 244 7.1 Introduction 244 7.2 Diffusion Mechanisms 245 7.3 Fick's First Law 246 7.4 Fick's Second Law-Nonsteady-State Diffusion 248 7.5 Factors that Influence Diffusion 252 7.6 Diffusion in Semiconducting Materials 258 Materials of Importance 7.1-Aluminum for Integrated Circuit Interconnects 261 7.7 Other Diffusion Paths 262 7.8 Diffusion in Ionic and Polymeric Materials 262 Summary 264 Equation Summary 266 List of Symbols 266 Important Terms and Concepts 266 References 267 Questions and Problems 267 8. Mechanical Properties 272 Learning Objectives 273 8.1 Introduction 273 8.2 Concepts of Stress and Strain 274 Elastic Deformation 278 8.3 Stress-Strain Behavior 278 8.4 Anelasticity 281 8.5 Elastic Properties of Materials 282 Mechanical Behavior-Metals 284 8.6 Tensile Properties 285 8.7 True Stress and Strain 292 8.8 Elastic Recovery after Plastic Deformation 295 8.9 Compressive, Shear, and Torsional Deformations 295 Mechanical Behavior-Ceramics 296 8.10 Flexural Strength 296 8.11 Elastic Behavior 297 8.12 Influence of Porosity on the Mechanical Properties of Ceramics 297 Mechanical Behavior-Polymers 299 8.13 Stress-Strain Behavior 299 8.14 Macroscopic Deformation 301 8.15 Viscoelastic Deformation 302 Hardness and Other Mechanical Property Considerations 306 8.16 Hardness 306 8.17 Hardness of Ceramic Materials 307 8.18 Tear Strength and Hardness of Polymers 312 8.19 Hardness at Elevated Temperature 313 Property Variability and Design/Safety Factors 313 8.20 Variability of Material Properties 313 8.21 Design/Safety Factors 315 Summary 319 Equation Summary 322 List of Symbols 323 Important Terms and Concepts 324 References 324 Questions and Problems 324 9. Dislocation, Deformation, and Strengthening Mechanisms 333 Learning Objectives 334 9.1 Introduction 334 Deformation Mechanisms for Metals 334 9.2 Historical 335 9.3 Basic Concepts of Dislocations 335 9.4 Characteristics of Dislocations 337 9.5 Slip Systems 338 9.6 Slip in Single Crystals 340 9.7 Plastic Deformation of Polycrystalline Metals 343 9.8 Deformation by Twinning 345 Mechanisms of Strengthening in Metals 346 9.9 Strengthening by Grain Size Reduction 346 9.10 Solid-Solution Strengthening 348 9.11 Strain Hardening 349 Recovery, Recrystallization, and Grain Growth 352 9.12 Recovery 352 9.13 Recrystallization 353 9.14 Grain Growth 357 Deformation Mechanisms for Ceramic Materials 359 9.15 Crystalline Ceramics 359 9.16 Noncrystalline Ceramics 359 Mechanisms of Deformation and for Strengthening of Polymers 360 9.17 Deformation of Semicrystalline Polymers 360 9.18 Factors that Influence the Mechanical Properties of Semicrystalline Polymers 362 Materials of Importance 9.1-Shrink-Wrap Polymer Films 365 9.19 Deformation of Elastomers 366 Summary 368 Equation Summary 371 List of Symbols 371 Important Terms and Concepts 371 References 372 Questions and Problems 372 10. Failure 378 Learning Objectives 379 10.1 Introduction 379 Fracture 380 10.2 Fundamentals of Fracture 380 10.3 Ductile Fracture 380 10.4 Brittle Fracture 382 10.5 Principles of Fracture Mechanics 384 10.6 Griffith Theory of Brittle Fracture 394 10.7 Brittle Fracture of Ceramics 395 10.8 Fracture of Polymers 399 10.9 Fracture Toughness Testing 401 Fatigue 405 10.10 Cyclic Stresses 406 10.11 The S-N Curve 407 10.12 Fatigue in Polymeric Materials 412 10.13 Crack Initiation and Propagation 413 10.14 Factors that Affect Fatigue Life 415 10.15 Thermal and Corrosion Fatigue 417 10.16 Goodman Diagram 418 10.17 Fatigue Crack Propagation Rate 420 Creep 423 10.18 Mechanical Behavior Dependent on Time 423 10.19 Stress and Temperature Effects 424 10.20 Data Extrapolation Methods 427 10.21 High-Temperature Material 428 10.22 Creep in Ceramic and Polymeric Materials 429 Summary 429 Equation Summary 432 List of Symbols 433 Important Terms and Concepts 434 References 434 Questions and Problems 434 11. Phase Diagrams 441 Learning Objectives 442 11.1 Introduction 442 Definitions and Basic Concepts 442 11.2 Solubility Limit 443 11.3 Phases 444 11.4 Microstructure 444 11.5 Phase Equilibria 444 11.6 One-Component (or Unary) Phase Diagrams 445 Binary Phase Diagrams 446 11.7 Binary Isomorphous Systems 447 11.8 Interpretation of Phase Diagrams 449 11.9 Development of Microstructure in Isomorphous Alloys 453 11.10 Mechanical Properties of Isomorphous Alloys 456 11.11 Binary Eutectic Systems 456 11.12 Development of Microstructure in Eutectic Alloys 462 Materials of Importance 11.1-Lead-Free Solders 463 11.13 Equilibrium Diagrams Having Intermediate Phases or Compounds 469 11.14 Eutectoid and Peritectic Reactions 472 11.15 Peritectoid and Monotectic Reactions 473 11.16 Congruent Phase Transformations 475 11.17 Ceramic Phase Diagrams 476 11.18 Ternary Phase Diagrams 479 11.19 The Gibbs Phase Rule 480 The Iron-Carbon System 482 11.20 The Iron-Iron Carbide (Fe-Fe 3 C) Phase Diagram 482 11.21 Development of Microstructure in Iron- Carbon Alloys 485 11.22 The Influence of Other Alloying Elements 492 11.23 Spinodal Decomposition 493 Summary 496 Equation Summary 498 List of Symbols 499 Important Terms and Concepts 499 References 500 Questions and Problems 500 12. Phase Transformations 507 Learning Objectives 508 12.1 Introduction 508 Phase Transformations in Metals 508 12.2 Basic Concepts 509 12.3 The Thermodynamics and Kinetics of Phase Transformations 509 12.4 Metastable Versus Equilibrium States 520 Microstructural and Property Changes in Iron-Carbon Alloys 521 12.5 Isothermal Transformation Diagrams 521 12.6 Continuous-Cooling Transformation Diagrams 531 12.7 Mechanical Behavior of Iron-Carbon Alloys 534 12.8 Tempered Martensite 539 12.9 Review of Phase Transformations and Mechanical Properties for Iron-Carbon Alloys 541 Materials of Importance 12.1-Shape- Memory Alloys 544 Precipitation Hardening 547 12.10 Heat Treatments 547 12.11 Mechanism of Hardening 549 12.12 Martempering and Austempering 551 12.13 Surface Hardening (Case-Hardening Process) 552 12.14 Vacuum and Plasma Hardening 554 Crystallization, Melting, and Glass Transition Phenomena in Polymers 554 12.15 Crystallization 555 12.16 Melting 556 12.17 The Glass Transition 556 12.18 Melting and Glass Transition Temperatures 556 12.19 Factors that Influence Melting and Glass Transition Temperatures 557 Summary 560 Equation Summary 562 List of Symbols 563 Important Terms and Concepts 563 References 563 Questions and Problems 564 13. Electrical Properties of Materials 571 Learning Objectives 572 13.1 Introduction 572 Electrical Conduction 573 13.2 Ohm's Law 573 13.3 Electrical Conductivity 573 13.4 Electronic and Ionic Conduction 574 13.5 Energy Band Structures in Solids 574 13.6 Conduction in Terms of Band and Atomic Bonding Models 577 13.7 Electron Mobility 579 13.8 Electrical Resistivity of Metals 580 13.9 Electrical Characteristics of Commercial Alloys 583 Semiconductivity 583 13.10 Intrinsic Semiconduction 583 13.11 Extrinsic Semiconduction 586 13.12 The Temperature Dependence of Carrier Concentration 589 13.13 Factors that Affect Carrier Mobility 591 13.14 The Hall Effect 595 13.15 Semiconductor Devices 597 Electrical Conduction in Ionic Ceramics and in Polymers 603 13.16 Conduction in Ionic Materials 603 13.17 Electrical Properties of Polymers 604 Dielectric Behavior 605 13.18 Capacitance 605 13.19 Field Vectors and Polarization 607 13.20 Types of Polarization 610 13.21 Frequency Dependence of the Dielectric Constant 611 13.22 Dielectric Strength 612 13.23 Dielectric Materials 612 Other Electrical Characteristics of Materials 613 13.24 Ferroelectricity 613 13.25 Piezoelectricity 614 Materials of Importance 13.1- Piezoelectric Ceramic Ink-Jet Printer Heads 615 13.26 Electrostriction 616 Summary 617 Equation Summary 619 List of Symbols 620 Important Terms and Concepts 621 References 621 Questions and Problems 622 14. Types and Applications of Materials628 Learning Objectives 629 14.1 Introduction 629 Types of Metal Alloys 629 14.2 Ferrous Alloys 629 14.3 Nonferrous Alloys 642 Materials of Importance 14.1-Metal Alloys Used for Euro Coins 652 Types of Ceramics 653 14.4 Glasses 654 14.5 Glass-Ceramics 654 14.6 Clay Products 656 14.7 Refractories 656 14.8 Abrasives 659 14.9 Cements 661 14.10 Ceramic Biomaterials 662 14.11 Carbons 663 14.12 Advanced Ceramics 666 Types of Polymers 668 14.13 Plastics 668 Materials of Importance 14.2-Phenolic Billiard Balls 670 14.14 Elastomers 671 14.15 Fibers 673 14.16 Miscellaneous Applications 673 14.17 Polymeric Biomaterials 675 14.18 Advanced Polymeric Materials 677 Summary 680 Important Terms and Concepts 683 References 683 Questions and Problems 683 15. Processing of Engineering Materials686 Learning Objectives 687 15.1 Introduction 687 Fabrication of Metals 687 15.2 Forming Operations 688 15.3 Casting 689 15.4 Miscellaneous Techniques 691 15.5 3D Printing (Additive Manufacturing) 692 Thermal Processing of Metals 696 15.6 Annealing Processes 697 15.7 Heat Treatment of Steels 699 Fabrication of Ceramic Materials 711 15.8 Fabrication and Processing of Glasses and Glass-Ceramics 711 15.9 Fabrication and Processing of Clay Products 716 15.10 Powder Pressing 721 15.11 Tape Casting 723 15.12 3D Printing of Ceramic Materials 723 Synthesis and Fabrication of Polymers 725 15.13 Polymerization 725 15.14 Polymer Additives 728 15.15 Forming Techniques for Plastics 729 15.16 Fabrication of Elastomers 732 15.17 Fabrication of Fibers and Films 732 15.18 3D Printing of Polymers 733 Summary 736 Important Terms and Concepts 739 References 739 Questions and Problems 740 16. Corrosion and Degradation 743 Learning Objectives 744 16.1 Introduction 744 Corrosion of Metals 745 16.2 Electrochemical Considerations 745 16.3 Corrosion Kinetics 751 16.4 Prediction of Corrosion Rates 753 16.5 Passivity 759 16.6 Environmental Effects 760 16.7 Forms of Corrosion 761 16.8 Corrosion Environments 768 16.9 Corrosion Prevention 769 16.10 Oxidation 771 Corrosion of Ceramic Materials 775 Degradation of Polymers 775 16.11 Swelling and Dissolution 775 16.12 Bond Rupture 777 16.13 Weathering 779 Summary 779 Equation Summary 781 List of Symbols 782 Important Terms and Concepts 783 References 783 Questions and Problems 783 17. Thermal Properties 787 Learning Objectives 788 17.1 Introduction 788 17.2 Heat Capacity 788 17.3 Thermal Expansion 792 Materials of Importance 17.1-Invar and Other Low-Expansion Alloys 794 17.4 Thermal Conductivity 795 17.5 Thermal Stresses 798 Summary 800 Equation Summary 801 List of Symbols 802 Important Terms and Concepts 802 References 802 Questions and Problems 802 18. Magnetic Properties 805 Learning Objectives 806 18.1 Introduction 806 18.2 Basic Concepts 806 18.3 Diamagnetism and Paramagnetism 810 18.4 Ferromagnetism 812 18.5 Antiferromagnetism and Ferrimagnetism 813 18.6 The Influence of Temperature on Magnetic Behavior 817 18.7 Domains and Hysteresis 818 18.8 Magnetic Anisotropy 821 18.9 Soft Magnetic Materials 823 Materials of Importance 18.1-An Iron-Silicon Alloy That Is Used in Transformer Cores 823 18.10 Hard Magnetic Materials 825 18.11 Magnetic Storage 828 18.12 Superconductivity 831 Summary 834 Equation Summary 836 List of Symbols 836 Important Terms and Concepts 837 References 837 Questions and Problems 837 19. Optical Properties 840 Learning Objectives 841 19.1 Introduction 841 Basic Concepts 841 19.2 Electromagnetic Radiation 841 19.3 Light Interactions with Solids 843 19.4 Atomic and Electronic Interactions 844 Optical Properties of Metals 845 Optical Properties of Nonmetals 846 19.5 Refraction 846 19.6 Reflection 848 19.7 Absorption 849 19.8 Transmission 852 19.9 Color 852 19.10 Opacity and Translucency in Insulators 854 Applications of Optical Phenomena 855 19.11 Luminescence 855 19.12 Photoconductivity 855 Materials of Importance 19.1-Light-Emitting Diodes 856 19.13 Lasers 858 19.14 Optical Fibers in Communications 862 Summary 864 Equation Summary 866 List of Symbols 867 Important Terms and Concepts 867 References 867 Questions and Problems 868 20. Economic, Environmental, and Societal Issues in Materials Science and Engineering 870 Learning Objectives 871 20.1 Introduction 871 Economic Considerations 871 20.2 Component Design 872 20.3 Materials 872 20.4 Manufacturing Techniques 873 Environmental and Societal Considerations 873 20.5 Recycling Issues in Materials Science and Engineering 876 Materials of Importance 20.1-Biodegradable and Biorenewable Polymers/Plastics 880 Summary 882 References 883 Questions and Problems 883 Appendix A The International System of Units (SI) A-1 A.1: The SI Base Units A-1 A.2: Some SI Derived Units A-2 A.3: SI Multiple and Submultiple Prefixes A-2 A.4: Unit Abbreviations A-3 A.5: Unit Conversion Factors A-3 Appendix B Properties of Selected Engineering Materials A-5 B.1: Density A-5 B.2: Modulus of Elasticity A-9 B.3: Poisson's Ratio A-12 B.4: Strength and Ductility A-14 B.5: Plane Strain Fracture Toughness A-19 B.6: Linear Coefficient of Thermal Expansion A-20 B.7: Thermal Conductivity A-24 B.8: Specific Heat A-27 B.9: Electrical Resistivity A-30 B.10: Metal Alloy Compositions A-33 Appendix C Costs and Relative Costs for Selected Engineering Materials A-35 Appendix D Repeat Unit Structures for Common Polymers A-40 Appendix E Glass Transition and Melting Temperatures for Common Polymeric Materials A-45 Appendix F Characteristics of Selected Elements A-46 Appendix G Values of Selected Physical Constants A-47 Appendix H Periodic Table of the ElementsA-48 Glossary G-1 Answers to Selected Problems (available online) Index I-1

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