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Summary of Research Examples Preface 1 Scientific Thinking in Psychology Why Take This Course? Ways of Knowing Authority Use of Reason Empiricism The Ways of Knowing and Science Science as a Way of Knowing Science Assumes Determinism Science Makes Systematic Observations Science Produces Public Knowledge Box 1.1: ORIGINS-A Taste of Introspection Science Produces Data�]Based Conclusions Science Produces Tentative Conclusions Science Asks Answerable Questions Science Develops Theories That Can Be Falsified Psychological Science and Pseudoscience Recognizing Pseudoscience Associates with True Science Box 1.2: CLASSIC STUDIES-Falsifying Phrenology Relies on Anecdotal Evidence Sidesteps the Falsification Requirement Reduce Complex Phenomena to Overly Simplistic Concepts The Goals of Research in Psychology Describe Predict Explain Apply A Passion for Research in Psychology Eleanor Gibson (1910-2002) B. F. Skinner (1904-1990) 2 Ethics in Psychological Research Box 2.1: CLASSIC STUDIES-Infants at Risk Developing a Code of Ethics for Psychological Science Ethical Guidelines for Research with Humans Weighing Benefits and Costs: The Role of the IRB Informed Consent and Deception in Research Box 2.2: ETHICS-Historical Problems with Informed Consent Informed Consent and Special Populations Use of Deception Treating Participants Well Research Ethics and the Internet Ethical Guidelines for Research with Animals Animal Rights Box 2.3: ORIGINS-Antivivisection and the APA Using Animals in Psychological Research The APA Code for Animal Research Justifying the Study Caring for the Animals Using Animals for Educational Purposes Scientific Fraud Data Falsification 3 Developing Ideas for Research in Psychology Varieties of Psychological Research The Goals: Basic versus Applied Research The Setting: Laboratory versus Field Research Research Example 1-Combining Laboratory and Field Studies The Data: Quantitative versus Qualitative Research Asking Empirical Questions Operational Definitions Developing Research from Observations of Behavior and Serendipity Box 3.1: ORIGINS-Serendipity and Edge Detectors Developing Research from Theory The Nature of Theory The Relationship between Theory and Research Attributes of Good Theories Falsification Box 3.2: CLASSIC STUDIES-Falsification and Der Kluge Hans Parsimony Common Misunderstandings about Theory Developing Research from Other Research Research Teams and the "What's Next?" Question Research Example 2 - "What's Next?" Replication Box 3.3: ETHICS-Questionable Research Practices and Replication Remedies Creative Thinking in Science Reviewing the Literature Computerized Database Searches Search Tips Search Results 4 Sampling, Measurement, and Hypothesis Testing Who to Measure-Sampling Procedures Probability Sampling Random Sampling Stratified Sampling Cluster Sampling Nonprobability Sampling What to Measure-Varieties of Behavior Developing Measures from Constructs Research Example 3-Testing Constructs Using Habituation Research Example 4-Testing Constructs Using Reaction Time Box 4.1: ORIGINS-Reaction Time: From Mental Chronometry to Mental Rotation Evaluating Measures Reliability Validity Research Example 5-Construct Validity Reliability and Validity Scales of Measurement Nominal Scales Ordinal Scales Interval Scales Box 4.2: CLASSIC STUDIES-Measuring Somatotypes on an Interval Scale: Hoping for 4-4-4 Ratio Scales Statistical Analysis Descriptive and Inferential Statistics Descriptive Statistics Box 4.3: ETHICS-Statistics that Mislead Inferential Statistics Null Hypothesis Significance Testing Type I and Type II Errors Interpreting Failures to Reject H0 Beyond Null Hypothesis Significance Testing Effect Size Confidence Intervals Power 5 Introduction to Experimental Research Essential Features of Experimental Research Box 5.1: ORIGINS-John Stuart Mill and the Rules of Inductive Logic Establishing Independent Variables Varieties of Manipulated Independent Variables Control Groups Research Example 6-Experimental and Control Groups Controlling Extraneous Variables Measuring Dependent Variables Subject Variables Research Example 7-Using Subject Variables Drawing Conclusions When Using Subject Variables Box 5.2: CLASSIC STUDIES-Bobo Dolls and Aggression The Validity of Experimental Research Statistical Conclusion Validity Construct Validity External Validity Other Populations Box 5.3: ETHICS-Recruiting Participants: Everyone's in the Pool Other Environments Other Times A Note of Caution about External Validity Internal Validity Threats to Internal Validity Studies Extending Over Time History and Maturation Regression to the Mean Testing and Instrumentation Participant Problems Subject Selection Effects Attrition A Final Note on Internal Validity, Confounding, and External Validity 6 Methodological Control in Experimental Research Between�]Subjects Designs Creating Equivalent Groups Random Assignment Matching Within�]Subjects Designs Controlling Order Effects Testing Once per Condition Complete Counterbalancing Partial Counterbalancing Testing More than Once per Condition Reverse Counterbalancing Block Randomization Research Example 8-Counterbalancing with Block Randomization Methodological Control in Developmental Research Box 6.1: CLASSIC STUDIES-The Record for Repeated Measures Controlling for the Effects of Bias Experimenter Bias Controlling for Experimenter Bias Research Example 9-Using a Double Blind Procedure Participant Bias Box 6.2: ORIGINS-Productivity at Western Electric Research Example 10-Demand Characteristics Controlling for Participant Bias Box 6.3: ETHICS-Research Participants Have Responsibilities Too 7 Experimental Design I: Single�]Factor Designs Single Factor-Two Levels Between�]Subjects, Single�]Factor Designs Research Example 11-Two-Level Independent Groups Design Research Example 12- Two-Level Matched Groups Design Research Example 13- Two-Level Ex Post Facto Design Within�]Subjects, Single�]Factor Designs Box 7.1: CLASSIC STUDIES-Psychology's Most Widely Replicated Finding? Research Example 14-Two-Level Repeated Measures Design Single Factor-More Than Two Levels Between�]Subjects, Multilevel Designs Research Example 15-Multilevel Independent Groups Design Within�]Subjects, Multilevel Designs Research Example 16-Multilevel Repeated Measures Design Analyzing Data from Single�]Factor Designs Presenting the Data Types of Graphs Box 7.2: ORIGINS-The Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve Analyzing the Data Statistics for Single-Factor, Two-Level Designs Statistics for Single-Factor, Two-Level Designs Special�]Purpose Control Group Designs Placebo Control Group Designs Wait List Control Group Designs Box 7.3: ETHICS-Who's in the Control Group? Research Example 17-Using Both Placebo and Wait List Control Groups Yoked Control Group Designs Research Example 18-A Yoked Control Group 8 Experimental Design II: Factorial Designs Essentials of Factorial Designs Identifying Factorial Designs Outcomes-Main Effects and Interactions Main Effects Research Example 19-Main Effects Interactions Research Example 20-An Interaction with No Main Effects Interactions Sometimes Trump Main Effects Combinations of Main Effects and Interactions Creating Graphs for the Results of Factorial Designs Box 8.1: CLASSIC STUDIES-To Sleep, Perchance to Recall Varieties of Factorial Designs Mixed Factorial Designs Research Example 21-A Mixed Factorial with Counterbalancing Research Example 22-A Mixed Factorial without Counterbalancing Factorials with Subject and Manipulated Variables: P × E Designs Research Example 23-A Factorial Design with a P × E Interaction Research Example 24-A Mixed P × E Factorial with Two Main Effects Recruiting Participants for Factorial Designs Box 8.2: ETHICS-On Being a Competent and Ethical Researcher Analyzing Data from Factorial Designs Box 8.3: ORIGINS-Factorials Down on the Farm 9 Non�]Experimental Design I: Survey Methods Survey Research Box 9.1: ORIGINS-Creating the "Questionary" Sampling Issues in Survey Research Surveys versus Psychological Assessment Creating an Effective Survey Types of Survey Questions or Statements Assessing Memory and Knowledge Adding Demographic Information A Key Problem: Survey Wording Collecting Survey Data In-Person Interviews Mailed Written Surveys Phone Surveys Online Surveys Ethical Considerations Box 9.2: ETHICS-Using and Abusing Surveys Research Example 25-A Survey of College Students' Study Strategies Analyzing Data from Non�]Experimental Methods Correlation: Describing Relationships Scatterplots Correlation Coefficients Coefficient of Determination Be Aware of Outliers Regression: Making Predictions Research Example 26 - Regression and Multiple Regression Interpreting Correlational Results Directionality Research Example 27-Correlations and Directionality Third Variables Combining Non�]Experimental and Experimental Methods Research Example 28-Combining Methods 10 Non�]Experimental Design II: Observational and Archival Methods Observational Research Varieties of Observational Research Naturalistic Observation Participant Observation Box 10.1: CLASSIC STUDIES-When Prophecy Fails Challenges Facing Observational Methods Absence of Control Observer Bias Participant Reactivity Ethics Box 10.2: ETHICS-A Matter of Privacy Research Example 29-A Naturalistic Observation Research Example 30-A Covert Participant Observation Analyzing Qualitative Data from Non�]Experimental Designs Archival Research Archival Data Research Example 31-A Non-Experimental Design Using Archival Data Analyzing Archival Data Meta�]Analysis-A Special Case of Archival Research Research Example 32-Meta-analysis and Psychology's First Registered Replication Report (RRR) 11 Quasi�]Experimental Designs and Applied Research Beyond the Laboratory Research Example 33-Applied Research Applied Psychology in Historical Context Box 11.1: CLASSIC STUDIES-The Hollingworth's, Applied Psychology, and Coca-Cola Design Problems in Applied Research Quasi�]Experimental Designs Nonequivalent Control Group Designs Outcomes Regression to the Mean and Matching Research Example 34-A Nonequivalent Control Group Design Research Example 35-A Nonequivalent Control Group Design Without Pretests Interrupted Time Series Designs Outcomes Research Example 36-An Interrupted Time Series Design Variations on the Basic Time Series Design Program Evaluation Box 11.2: ORIGINS-Reforms as Experiments Planning for Programs-Needs Analysis Research Example 37-Assessing Need in Program Evaluation Monitoring Programs-Formative Evaluation Evaluating Outcomes-Summative Evaluation Weighing Costs-Cost�]Effectiveness Analysis A Note on Qualitative Data Analysis Box 11.3: ETHICS-Evaluation Research and Ethics 12 Small N Designs Research in Psychology Began with Small N Box 12.1: ORIGINS-Cats in Puzzle Boxes Reasons for Small N Designs Occasional Misleading Results from Statistical Summaries of Grouped Data Practical and Philosophical Problems with Large N Designs The Experimental Analysis of Behavior Applied Behavior Analysis Box 12.2: ETHICS-Controlling Human Behavior Small N Designs in Applied Behavior Analysis Elements of Single�]Subject Designs Withdrawal Designs Research Example 38-An A-B-A-B Design Multiple Baseline Designs Research Example 39-A Multiple Baseline Design Changing Criterion Designs Research Example 40-A Changing Criterion Design Alternating Treatments Designs Research Example 41-An Alternating Treatments Design Evaluating Single�]Subject Designs Case Study Designs Research Example 42-A Case Study Box 12.3: CLASSIC STUDIES-The Mind of a Mnemonist Evaluating Case Studies Epilogue: What I Learned in My Research Methods Course Appendix A Communicating the Results of Research in Psychology Research Reports and APA-Style General Guidelines Writing Style Using Numbers Reducing Bias in Language Avoiding Plagiarism Main Sections of the Research Report Presentations and Posters Tips for Presenting a Paper Tips for Presenting a Poster Appendix B Answers to Selected End-of-Chapter Applications Exercises Chapter 1. Scientific Thinking in Psychology Chapter 2. Ethics in Psychological Research Chapter 3. Developing Ideas for Research in Psychology Chapter 4. Sampling, Measurement, and Hypothesis Testing Chapter 5. Introduction to Experimental Research Chapter 6. Methodological Control in Experimental Research Chapter 7. Experimental Design I: Single�]Factor Designs Chapter 8. Experimental Design II: Factorial Designs Chapter 9. Non�]Experimental Design I: Survey Methods Chapter 10. Non�]Experimental Design II: Observational and Archival Methods Chapter 11. Quasi�]Experimental Designs and Applied Research Chapter 12. Small N Designs Appendix A. Communicating the Results of Research in Psychology Glossary References Index

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