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Contents

About the Companion Website xxiii Introduction xxv Section I Introduction to Earth Systems 1 1 Introduction to Earth Systems 3 1.1 Introduction to Earth's Formation 4 1.2 Introduction to Earth Spheres 5 1.3 Scales in Space and Time 7 1.4 Systems and Feedback 8 1.5 Open and Closed Flow Systems 9 1.6 Equilibrium in Systems 11 1.7 Time Cycles in Systems 13 Section II Atmospheric and Ocean Systems 17 2 Structure and Composition of the Atmosphere 19 2.1 Structure of the Atmosphere 20 2.2 Composition of the Atmosphere 21 2.3 Carbon Dioxide and Methane 23 2.4 Water Vapour 24 3 Energy in the Atmosphere and the Earth Heat Budget 27 3.1 Introduction 28 3.2 Solar Radiation 28 4 Moisture in the Atmosphere 41 4.1 Introduction 42 4.2 The Global Hydrological Cycle 42 4.3 Air Stability and Instability 46 4.4 Clouds 48 4.5 Precipitation 49 5 Atmospheric Motion 55 5.1 Introduction 56 5.2 Atmospheric Pressure 56 5.3 Winds and Pressure Gradients 58 5.4 The Global Pattern of Atmospheric Circulation 62 6 Weather Systems 67 6.1 Introduction 68 6.2 Macroscale Synoptic Systems 68 6.3 Meso-Scale: local Winds 81 6.4 Microclimates 83 6.5 Weather Observation and Forecasting 89 7 World Climates 99 7.1 Introduction 100 7.2 Classification of Climate 100 8 Ocean Structure and Circulation Patterns 113 8.1 Introduction 114 8.2 Physical Structure of the Oceans 114 8.3 Temperature Structure of the Oceans 117 8.4 Ocean Circulation 117 8.5 Sea-Level Change 121 9 Atmospheric Evolution 125 9.1 Evolution of Earth's Atmosphere 126 10 Principles of Climate Change 131 10.1 Introduction 132 10.2 Evidence for Climate Change 133 10.3 Causes of Climate Change 145 Section III Endogenic Geological Systems 159 11 Earth Materials: Mineralogy, Rocks and the Rock Cycle 161 11.1 What is a Mineral? 162 11.2 Rocks and the Rock Cycle 173 11.3 Vulcanicity and Igneous Rocks 175 11.4 Sedimentary Rocks, Fossils and Sedimentary Structures 176 11.5 Metamorphic Rocks 187 12 The Internal Structure of the Earth 191 12.1 Introduction 192 12.2 Evidence of Earth's Composition from Drilling 192 12.3 Evidence of Earth's Composition from Volcanoes 193 12.4 Evidence of Earth's Composition from Meteorites 194 12.5 Using Earthquake Seismic Waves as Earth Probes 194 13 Plate Tectonics and Volcanism: Processes, Products, and Landforms 199 13.1 Introduction 200 13.2 Global Tectonics: how Plates, Basins, and Mountains are Created 200 13.3 Volcanic Processes and the Global Tectonic Model 204 13.4 Magma Eruption 215 13.5 Explosive Volcanism 220 13.6 Petrographic Features of Volcaniclastic Sediments 228 13.7 Transport and Deposition of Pyroclastic Materials 228 13.8 The Relationship Between Volcanic Processes and the Earth's Atmosphere and Climate 238 13.9 Plate Tectonics, Uniformitarianism and Earth History 245 14 Geotectonics: Processes, Structures, and Landforms 255 14.1 Introduction 256 14.2 Tectonic Structures 256 14.3 Tectonic Structures as Lines of Weakness in Landscape Evolution 263 Section IV Exogenic Geological Systems 265 15 Weathering Processes and Products 267 15.1 Introduction 268 15.2 Physical or Mechanical Weathering 270 15.3 Chemical Weathering 281 15.4 Measuring Weathering Rates 293 15.5 Weathering Landforms 295 16 Slope Processes and Morphology 299 16.1 Introduction 300 16.2 Slopes: Mass Movement 300 16.3 Hillslope Hydrology and Slope Processes 329 16.4 Slope Morphology and its Evolution 336 17 Fluvial Processes and Landform-Sediment Assemblages 349 17.1 Introduction 350 17.2 Loose Boundary Hydraulics 350 17.3 The Energy of a River and Its Ability to Do Work 353 17.4 Transport of the Sediment Load 353 17.5 Types of Sediment Load 355 17.6 River Hydrology 356 17.7 The Drainage Basin 358 17.8 Drainage Patterns and their Interpretation 362 17.9 Fluvial Channel Geomorphology 362 18 Carbonate Sedimentary Environments and Karst Processes and Landforms 411 18.1 Introduction 412 18.2 Carbonate Sedimentary Environments and Carbonate Rock Characteristics 412 18.3 Evaporites 430 18.4 Carbonate Facies Models 430 18.5 Karst Processes 435 19 Coastal Processes, Landforms, and Sediments 467 19.1 Introduction to the Coastal Zone 468 19.2 Sea Waves, Tides, and Tsunamis 470 19.3 Tides 476 19.4 Tsunamis 480 19.5 Coastal Landsystems 485 19.6 Distribution of Coastal Land systems 527 19.7 The Impact of Climatic Change on Coastal Landsystems: What Lies in the Future? 530 20 Glacial Processes and Land Systems 535 20.1 Introduction 536 20.2 Mass Balance and Glacier Formation 538 20.3 Mass Balance and Glacier Flow 546 20.4 Surging Glaciers 548 20.5 Processes of Glacial Erosion and Deposition 552 20.6 Glacial Landsystems 574 21 Periglacial Processes and Landform-Sediment Assemblages 605 21.1 Introduction to the Term 'Periglacial' 606 21.2 Permafrost 606 21.3 Periglacial Processes and Landforms 609 21.4 Frost Heaving and Frost Thrusting 612 21.5 Landforms Associated with Frost Sorting 614 21.6 Needle Ice Development 615 21.7 Frost Cracking and the Development of Ice Wedges 615 21.8 Growth of Ground Ice and Its Decay, and the Development of Pingos, Thufurs, and Palsas 620 21.9 Processes Associated with Snowbanks (Nivation Processes) 626 21.10 Cryoplanation or Altiplanation Processes and Their Resultant Landforms 628 21.11 The Development of Tors 633 21.12 Slope Processes Associated with the Short Summer Melt Season 638 21.13 Cambering and Associated Structures 645 21.14 Wind Action in a Periglacial Climate 645 21.15 Fluvial Processes in a Periglacial Environment 648 21.16 Alluvial Fans in a Periglacial Region 650 21.17 An Overview of the Importance of Periglacial Processes in Shaping the Landscape of Upland Britain 652 21.18 The Periglaciation of Lowland Britain 654 22 Aeolian (Wind) Processes and Landform-Sediment Assemblages 655 22.1 Introduction 656 22.2 Current Controls on Wind Systems 657 22.3 Sediment Entrainment and Processes of Sand Movement 657 22.4 Processes of Wind Transport 659 22.5 Aeolian Bedforms 661 22.6 Dune and Aeolian Sediments 677 22.7 Dust and Loess Deposition 678 22.8 Wind Erosion Landforms 682 Section V The Biosphere 687 23 Principles of Ecology and Biogeography 689 23.1 Introduction 690 23.2 Why Do Organisms Live Where They Do? 690 23.3 Components of Ecosystems 694 23.4 Energy Flow in Ecosystems 699 23.5 Food Chains and Webs 704 23.6 Pathways of Mineral Matter (Biogeochemical Cycling) 707 23.7 Vegetation Succession and Climaxes 714 23.8 Concluding Remarks 732 24 Soil-forming Processes and Products 733 24.1 Introduction 734 24.2 Controls on Soil Formation 735 24.3 Soils as Systems 738 24.4 Soil Profile Development 739 24.5 Soil Properties 744 24.6 Key Soil Types, with a Description and Typical Profile 752 24.7 Podsolization: Theories 756 24.8 Soil Classification 757 24.9 Regional and Local Soil Distribution 759 24.10 The Development of Dune Soils: An Example from the Sefton Coast 768 24.11 The Development of Woodland Soils in Delamere Forest 770 24.12 Intrazonal Soils Caused by Topographic Change 770 24.13 Palaeosols 771 25 World Ecosystems 775 25.1 Introduction 776 25.2 The Tundra Ecozone 778 25.3 The Tropical (Equatorial) Rain Forest, or Humid Tropics Sensu Stricto, Ecozone 786 25.4 The Seasonal Tropics or Savanna Ecozone 793 25.5 Potential Effects of Global Warming on the World's Ecozones 800 Section VI Global Environmental Change: Past, Present and Future 807 26 The Earth as a Planet: Geological Evolution and Change 809 26.1 Introduction 810 26.2 How Unique is the Earth as a Planet? 810 26.3 What Do We Really Know About the Early Earth? 811 26.4 The Early Geological Record 811 26.5 The First Earth System 815 26.6 How Did the Earth's Core Form? 817 26.7 Evolution of the Earth's Mantle 818 26.8 Evolution of the Continental Crust 827 27 Atmospheric Evolution and Climate Change 831 27.1 Evolution of Earth's Atmosphere 832 27.2 Future Climate Change 833 28 Future Change in Ocean Circulation and the Hydrosphere 843 28.1 Introduction 844 28.2 Sea-Level Change and the Supercontinental Cycle 844 28.3 Projected Long-Term Changes in the Ocean 849 28.4 Future Changes in the Water Cycle 850 29 Biosphere Evolution and Change 855 29.1 Introduction 856 29.2 Mechanisms of Evolution in the Fossil Record 856 29.3 The Origins of Life 860 29.4 An Outline History of the Earth's Biospheric Evolution 862 29.5 Mass Extinctions and Catastrophes in the History of Life on Earth 887 30 Environmental Change: Greenhouse and Icehouse Earth Phases and Climates Prior to Recent Changes 899 30.1 Introduction 900 30.2 Early Glaciations in the Proterozoic Phase of the Pre-Cambrian (the Snowball Earth Hypothesis) 900 30.3 Examples of Changes from Greenhouse to Icehouse Climates in the Earth's Past 908 30.4 Late Cenozoic Ice Ages: Rapid Climate Change in the Quaternary 922 30.5 Late Glacial Climates and Evidence for Rapid Change 932 30.6 The Medieval Warm Period (MWP) or Medieval Climate Optimum and the LIA 942 31 Global Environmental Change in the Future 951 31.1 Introduction 952 31.2 Future Climate Change 952 31.3 Change in the Geosphere 955 31.4 Change in the Oceans and Hydrosphere 958 31.5 Change in the Biosphere 959 31.6 A Timeline for Future Earth 960 31.7 Causes for Future Optimism? 961 31.8 Concluding Remarks 965 Index 967

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