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Contents

Preface to the Fourth Edition xiii List of Contributors xvii 1 Introduction 1 Nicholas Mays and Catherine Pope 1.1 What Is Qualitative Research? 1 1.2 The Uses of Qualitative Research 4 1.3 Methods Used in Qualitative Research 6 1.4 The Place of Qualitative Methods in Health Care Research 7 1.5 Outline of the Structure of the Book 9 References 10 Further Reading 13 2 The Role of Theory in Qualitative Research 15 Catherine Pope and Nicholas Mays 2.1 Introduction 15 2.2 Differences in Ontology and Epistemology 16 2.3 Implications of Ontology and Epistemology 18 2.4 Choose Your Philosophical Umbrella - Positivism or Interpretivism? 19 2.5 Theoretical Perspectives 21 2.6 Methodology 24 References 25 Further Reading 26 3 Ethical Issues in Qualitative Research 27 Dawn Goodwin, Nicholas Mays, and Catherine Pope 3.1 Introduction 27 3.2 Ethical Principles 28 3.2.1 Informed Consent 30 3.2.2 Confidentiality 31 3.2.3 Anonymity 34 3.3 Situational Ethics 35 3.4 Relational Ethics 38 3.5 Conclusion 39 References 40 Further Reading 41 4 Interviews 43 Lisa Hinton and Sara Ryan 4.1 Introduction 43 4.2 What Makes a Good Qualitative Interview? 46 4.3 Role of the Interviewer 47 4.4 The Practicalities of Qualitative Interviews 48 4.4.1 How Many Interviews Is Enough? 48 4.4.2 Sampling 49 4.4.3 Recruitment 50 4.4.4 Fundamentals - Quiet Space, Recording, and Transcription 51 4.4.5 Designing a Topic Guide 51 4.4.6 Data Saturation 52 4.5 Reflexivity 52 4.6 Conclusion 53 References 54 Further Reading 55 5 Focus Groups 57 Jonathan Q. Tritter and Bodil J. Landstad 5.1 Introduction 57 5.2 What Is a Focus Group? 58 5.3 Doing Focus Group Research 58 5.3.1 Recruitment and Sampling 59 5.3.2 Initiating the Focus Group 61 5.3.3 Follow-on or Second Focus Groups 62 5.4 Analysis 62 5.5 Ethical Issues 63 5.6 Conclusion 64 References 64 Further Reading 66 6 Observational Methods 67 Catherine Pope and Davina Allen 6.1 Introduction 67 6.2 Observational Methods and Ethnography 68 6.3 Rationales for Observational Studies in Health Care Research 69 6.4 Practical Issues to Consider When Using Observational Methods 72 6.4.1 Ethical Issues 72 6.4.2 Access to the Field 72 6.4.3 Research Roles 73 6.4.4 Recording Observational Data 74 6.5 The Relationship Between Theory and Observational Research 76 6.6 Analysis 76 6.7 Quality in Observational Studies 77 References 78 Further Reading 81 7 Documentary Analysis 83 Martin Gorsky and Alex Mold 7.1 Introduction 83 7.2 Uses of Documentary Methods 84 7.3 Sources and Location 86 7.4 Selection, Recording, and Storing 89 7.5 Approaches to Analysis 90 7.6 Conclusion 93 References 94 Further Reading 96 8 Digital Data and Online Qualitative Research 97 John Powell and Michelle H. van Velthoven 8.1 Introduction 97 8.2 Types of Digital and Virtual Data 98 8.3 Who Goes Online? The Have-Nets and the Have-Nots 99 8.4 Using Existing Online Data for Qualitative Health Research 100 8.5 Eliciting Qualitative Data Using Online Methods 103 8.6 Big Data and Digital Qualitative Research 104 8.7 Ethics of Using Digital Data and Conducting Online Research 105 8.8 Conclusions 108 References 108 Further Reading 109 9 Analysis 111 Catherine Pope, Sue Ziebland, and Nicholas Mays 9.1 The Nature and Scale of Qualitative Data 111 9.2 Data Preparation 112 9.3 The Relationship Between Data and Analysis 113 9.4 Counting and Qualitative Data 114 9.5 Initial Steps in Analysis 116 9.6 Thematic Analysis 119 9.7 Grounded Theory 120 9.8 IPA 122 9.9 The 'Framework' Approach 123 9.10 Software Packages Designed to Handle Qualitative Data 124 9.11 Developing Explanations - The Role of the Researcher 126 9.12 Working in a Team 128 9.13 Conclusion 131 References 131 Further Reading 133 10 Conversation Analysis 135 Geraldine M. Leydon and Rebecca K. Barnes 10.1 Introduction 135 10.2 What Is CA? 135 10.3 What Kinds of Questions Can CA Be Used to Answer? 137 10.4 Collecting Naturalistic Data 137 10.5 Transcription 139 10.6 Analysis 141 10.7 Sharing CA to Inform Health Care Practice 144 10.8 Conclusion 145 10.9 Further Considerations for CA Research 146 References 146 Further Reading 150 11 Synthesising Qualitative Research 151 Nicholas Mays and Catherine Pope 11.1 Introduction 151 11.2 Should We Synthesise Qualitative Research at all? 152 11.3 The Purposes of Synthesis 153 11.4 Generic Issues in Qualitative Synthesis 154 11.4.1 Refining the Research Question and Search Strategy 154 11.4.2 Data Extraction 155 11.4.3 Quality Appraisal of Studies 156 11.4.4 Analysis and Interpretation 156 11.5 Methods for Synthesising Qualitative Research 157 11.5.1 Narrative Synthesis 157 11.5.2 Framework Synthesis 158 11.5.3 Qualitative Cross-Case Analysis 158 11.5.4 Meta-ethnography 159 11.6 Synthesis of Qualitative and Quantitative Evidence 160 11.6.1 Integrating at the Review Level 161 11.6.2 Integrating Using a Common Structure, Framework, or Model 161 11.6.3 Integrating Through 'Transformation' of Data 162 11.6.4 Using an Integrative Method 164 11.7 Conclusion 165 References 166 Further Reading 168 12 Mixed Methods Research 169 Alicia O'Cathain 12.1 Introduction 169 12.2 Dealing with the 'Paradigm Wars' 170 12.3 Getting to Grips with Mixed Methodology 170 12.4 Mixed Methods Study Designs 171 12.4.1 Evaluation 171 12.4.2 Survey and Interviews 173 12.4.3 Development of Questionnaires and Measures 173 12.5 Integration of Qualitative and Quantitative Data and Findings 174 12.6 Thinking About Quality 175 12.7 Team Working 176 12.8 Publishing 176 12.9 Conclusions 177 References 177 Further Reading 180 13 Case Studies 181 Alec Fraser and Nicholas Mays 13.1 Introduction 181 13.2 Types of Case Study Research 182 13.3 Practical Considerations for Using Case Study Approaches in Health Care Settings 184 13.3.1 Defining Cases 184 13.3.2 Sampling 185 13.3.3 Data Collection Methods 187 13.3.4 Analysis 188 13.4 Conclusions 189 References 189 Further Reading 191 14 Participatory Research in Health Care 193 Kath Maguire and Nicky Britten 14.1 Introduction 193 14.2 Co-production 196 14.3 Participatory Action Research 199 14.4 Service User-Controlled Research 201 14.5 Citizen Science 204 14.6 Conclusion 206 References 207 Further Reading 210 15 Quality in Qualitative Research 211 Nicholas Mays and Catherine Pope 15.1 Introduction 211 15.2 Can We Use the Same Quality Criteria to Judge Qualitative and Quantitative Research? 213 15.2.1 Qualitative and Quantitative Research are Separate and Different: The Anti-Realist Position 214 15.2.2 It Is Possible to Assess Qualitative and Quantitative Research Using Similar Criteria: The Subtle Realist Position 216 15.3 Assuring and Assessing the Validity of Qualitative Research 216 15.3.1 Triangulation 217 15.3.2 Respondent Validation 218 15.3.3 Clear Exposition of Methods of Data Collection and Analysis 218 15.3.4 Reflexivity 219 15.3.5 Attention to Negative Cases 220 15.3.6 Fair Dealing 220 15.4 Relevance 221 15.5 The Appropriate Role for Quality Guidelines in Qualitative Research 222 15.5.1 Spencer and Colleagues' Framework for Assessing the Quality of Qualitative Research Evidence 223 15.5.1.1 Guiding Principles 223 15.5.1.2 Appraisal Questions 224 15.5.1.3 Quality Indicators 224 15.5.1.4 The Framework 224 15.5.2 Additional Quality Assessment Criteria 224 15.5.2.1 Data Collection 224 15.5.2.2 Analysis 230 15.6 Conclusion 230 References 231 Further Reading 233 Index 235

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