In this work, an internationally-respected authority in military ethics describes a wholly new kind of cyber conflict that has utterly confounded the predictions of earlier experts in information warfare. Comparing this "state-sponsored hacktivism" to the transformative impact of "irregular warfare" in conventional armed conflict, Lucas offers a critique of legal approaches to governance, and outlines a new approach to ethics and "just war" reasoning (grounded in the political philosophies of Alasdair MacIntyre, John Rawls, and Jürgen Habermas) that provides both a framework for understanding these newly-emerging norms of practice for cyber conflict, and the basis for a professional "code of ethics" for the new generation of "cyber warriors."
CONTENTS
Preface ix
Acknowledgments xiii
Introduction: Crime or Warfare?--1
1. Cyber (In)security: Threat Assessment in the Cyber Domain--16
What, When, and Where?--16
How?--18
Why?--19
Three Ways of Being a Hacktivist--21
Conventional Warfare--22
Unrestricted Warfare--24
State- Sponsored Hacktivism as a New Form of Warfare--27
2. Is There a Role for Ethics or Law in Cyber Conflict?--33
Irregular War and Cyberwar--33
Ethics and "Folk Morality"--35
Ethics and the Law--40
Ethics and Just War Theory--42
Strategic Plan of the Book--45
Applying Moral Theories in the Cyber Domain--48
3. The Tallinn Manual: International Law in the Aftermath of Estonia--57
International Law Applicable to Stuxnet--58
International Law and State- Sponsored Hacktivism--61
The Tallinn Manual--64
International Law and the Estonian Cyber attacks--68
"There Oughta' Be a Law!"--73
Why the Tallinn Manual Failed--76
4. Genuine Ethics versus "Folk Morality" in Cyberspace--85
The Advantages of Taking "the Moral Point of View"--86
The Challenge of Folk Morality for Authentic Ethics--88
The Origins of Universal Moral Norms--91
Thinking Ethically about Conflict in the Cyber Domain--96
Just War Theory and the Morality of Exceptions--98
Jus in Bello and Professional Military Ethics--101
Jus in Silico: Ethics and Just War Theory in the Cyber Domain--102
5. If Aristotle Waged Cyberwar: How Norms Emerge from Practice--109
Distinguishing between Laws and Norms--112
The Methodology of Uncertainty: How Do Norms "Emerge?"--113
Do Emergent Moral Norms Provide Effective Governance?--119
6. Privacy, Anonymity, and the Rise of State- Sponsored Hacktivism--125
Emergent Norms and the Rise of State- Sponsored Hacktivism--126
The Cunning of History--128
Permissible Preemptive Cyber Self- Defense--129
Privacy, Anonymity, and the Sectors of Vulnerability--130
Cyber security Measures for Individuals--131
Privacy versus Anonymity--133
A Limited Justification for Anonymity--135
Restricting Anonymity while Preserving Privacy--137
New "Rules of the Road" for Cyber Navigation--138
7. NSA Management Directive #424: Anticipatory National Self- Defense--142
Preventive War--143
Initial Public Response--147
The Dilemma of Edward Snowden--148
Government Deception and Public Trust--150
Defending National Boundaries And Personal Liberties--151
State Norms for Respecting Sovereignty and Attaining Security--153
Conclusion: Toward a Code of Ethics for Cyber Warriors--157
References--167
Index--175
